Short Description (Excerpt):
The Federal Army of the Mexican government. During the revolution, they represented the old order of the Porfiriato, fighting to preserve the dictatorship and the social hierarchy against the various rebel factions.

Full Description:
The FederalesFederales Short Description (Excerpt):The Federal Army of the Mexican government. During the revolution, they represented the old order of the Porfiriato, fighting to preserve the dictatorship and the social hierarchy against the various rebel factions. Full Description:The Federales were the professional military force inherited from the Díaz regime. While well-equipped, they were often composed of forced conscripts (leva) who had no loyalty to the state. They were infamous for their brutality and “scorched earth” tactics against peasant villages suspected of supporting rebels. Critical Perspective:Unlike many revolutions where the old army is integrated into the new state, the Mexican Revolution resulted in the total dissolution of the Federal Army in 1914. It was replaced entirely by the revolutionary militias. This total rupture explains why the post-revolutionary state was able to remain stable for so long; the institutional enforcement arm of the old oligarchy had been completely destroyed.
Read more were the professional military force inherited from the Díaz regime. While well-equipped, they were often composed of forced conscripts (leva) who had no loyalty to the state. They were infamous for their brutality and “scorched earth” tactics against peasant villages suspected of supporting rebels.

Critical Perspective:
Unlike many revolutions where the old army is integrated into the new state, the Mexican Revolution resulted in the total dissolution of the Federal Army in 1914. It was replaced entirely by the revolutionary militias. This total rupture explains why the post-revolutionary state was able to remain stable for so long; the institutional enforcement arm of the old oligarchy had been completely destroyed.

Welcome to the central resource for understanding the Mexican Revolution, a defining event of the 20th century that irrevocably shaped the course of modern Mexico. This complex and bloody conflict, spanning roughly from 1910 to 1920, was more than just a political upheaval; it was a profound social and cultural transformation. This page serves as your starting point to explore the key figures, pivotal moments, and enduring legacy of this tumultuous period. The curated articles below offer diverse perspectives on the revolution, from the decades of authoritarian rule that preceded it to the often-overlooked contributions of women who fought for change. We invite you to delve into these narratives to grasp the forces that forged a new Mexico.

The Spark of Revolution: An Introduction

The Mexican Revolution was a long and bloody struggle among various factions with constantly shifting alliances, which ultimately led to the end of a 30-year dictatorship and the establishment of a constitutional republic. It began against a backdrop of widespread dissatisfaction with the elitist and oligarchic policies of President Porfirio Díaz, which favored wealthy landowners and foreign industrialists at the expense of the rural peasantry and working class. The revolution unleashed a decade of civil war that saw the destruction of the Federal Army and the rise of a new political and social order.

The Mexican Revolution (1910–1920): This article provides a foundational overview of the revolution, from its origins in the twilight of the Porfiriato to the establishment of a new constitution and the eventual consolidation of a new government.

The Seeds of Discontent: The Porfiriato

To understand the revolution, one must first understand the era that preceded it: the Porfiriato, the long reign of President Porfirio Díaz. From 1876 to 1911, Díaz ruled Mexico with an iron fist, championing a policy of “order and progress.”[6] While his regime brought about significant modernization, including the construction of railways and the development of industries, this progress came at a steep price.[3][7] Political liberties were suppressed, the press was muzzled, and millions of peasants were dispossessed of their lands to make way for commercial agriculture and foreign investment. By 1910, this simmering discontent was ready to boil over.

Porfirio Díaz and the Porfiriato (1876–1911): Explore the policies and legacy of the man whose dictatorial rule brought both modernization and widespread misery to Mexico, ultimately paving the way for revolution.

Faces of the Revolution: Zapata and Villa

The Mexican Revolution was not a monolithic movement but a series of overlapping revolts led by a cast of charismatic and often conflicting figures. Two of the most iconic were Emiliano Zapata in the south and Pancho Villa in the north.

Emiliano Zapata: “Land and Liberty”

Emiliano Zapata, a peasant leader from the southern state of Morelos, became the embodiment of the revolution’s agrarian ideals. Enraged by the betrayal of the revolution’s initial leader, Francisco Madero, who failed to enact promised land reforms, Zapata issued his famous Plan of Ayala.This document denounced Madero and laid out a vision for radical land redistribution, becoming the guiding manifesto of the Zapatista movement.

Emiliano Zapata: The Southern Revolutionary and the Plan of Ayala: Delve into the life and ideology of the uncompromising agrarian leader whose fight for “Tierra y Libertad” (Land and Liberty) continues to inspire social movements today.

Pancho Villa: The Centaur of the North

From his beginnings as a bandit, Pancho Villa rose to become a brilliant and audacious revolutionary general, leading the formidable División del Norte.A key figure in the overthrow of both Porfirio Díaz and his successor, the brutal Victoriano Huerta, Villa was a complex and often contradictory figure. Revered by many as a folk hero and a “Mexican Robin Hood,” he was also a ruthless warrior who engaged in civil war and banditry.

Pancho Villa: From Bandit to Revolutionary General: Discover the story of the charismatic and controversial leader whose military prowess and popular appeal made him one of the most powerful figures of the revolution.

The Unsung Heroes: Women in the Revolution

Women played a crucial, yet often overlooked, role in the Mexican Revolution. They served as “soldaderas,” marching alongside the armies, cooking, washing clothes, and caring for the wounded. But their contributions went far beyond these traditional roles. Many women took up arms and fought on the battlefield, some even rising to positions of leadership. The revolution, while not a feminist movement in itself, opened up new avenues for women’s participation in public life and laid the groundwork for future struggles for equality.

Women in the Mexican Revolution (1910–1920): This article shines a light on the diverse and vital roles that women played in the conflict, from spies and smugglers to soldiers and political activists.

Petra Herrera: The General Who Wore Braids

Among the many women who fought in the revolution, Petra Herrera stands out as a remarkable example of courage and leadership. To join the fight, she initially disguised herself as a man, adopting the name “Pedro Herrera.” Her skill as a demolitions expert and her natural leadership abilities quickly earned her a reputation. Even after revealing her true identity, she commanded a brigade of men and later formed her own all-female unit of 400 soldiers. Despite her pivotal role in major victories, such as the second battle of Torreón, Pancho Villa refused to give her military credit or promote her to the rank of General. Herrera’s story is a powerful testament to the agency of women in the revolution and the patriarchal forces that sought to erase their contributions.

The General Who Wore Braids: A Critical Evaluation of Petra Herrera and the Erasure of Female Agency in the Mexican Revolution: This piece offers a critical look at the life of a remarkable female commander and the broader issue of how women’s roles in the conflict have been marginalized in historical accounts.

The Northern Neighbor: The United States and the Mexican Revolution

As Mexico’s northern neighbor and a major foreign investor, the United States could not remain a bystander to the revolution. U.S. involvement was complex and often contradictory, with Washington supporting and opposing different factions at various times. From allowing revolutionaries to organize on U.S. soil to direct military interventions, such as the 1914 occupation of Veracruz, the United States played a significant and often controversial role in the unfolding conflict.

The United States and the Mexican Revolution (1910–1920): Examine the multifaceted and often interventionist role of the United States in the Mexican Revolution, a relationship driven by a complex mix of economic interests, strategic concerns, and ideological leanings.

GLOSSARY: Key Terms of the Mexican Revolution (1910–1920)

Agrarismo (Agrarianism)

A political and social ideology centred on land redistribution, peasant rights, and the restoration of communal landholding; central to Zapatista demands.

Bandolerismo (Banditry)

A term used—often politically—to describe irregular armed groups; many revolutionary leaders, including Pancho Villa, were labelled “bandits” by opponents.

Constitution of 1917

The post-revolutionary constitution that institutionalised land reform, labour rights, secular education, and limits on Church and foreign influence. It remains Mexico’s constitution today.

Constitutionalists

Followers of Venustiano Carranza who sought to restore constitutional order after Huerta’s coup. They became the dominant faction by 1915.

División del Norte

Pancho Villa’s highly mobile and powerful northern army, at times the most formidable military force in Mexico.

EjidoEjido Full Description:An Ejido is an area of land held collectively by a community, used for agriculture, forestry, or housing. Unlike private property, this land could not originally be sold, ensuring it remained a permanent resource for the village. The revolution fought to reclaim these lands which had been illegally seized by hacienda owners. Critical Perspective:The fight for the ejido represents the clash between two opposing worldviews: the capitalist view of land as a commodity to be bought and sold for profit, and the indigenous/peasant view of land as a communal right and source of subsistence. The ultimate partial success of the ejido system was one of the most radical redistributions of wealth in Latin American history.

A traditional system of communal landholding; the restoration of ejidos was a core goal of Zapatista agrarian reform.

Hacienda

Large landed estate controlled by wealthy elites. Expansion of haciendas during the Porfiriato dispossessed millions of peasants and fuelled revolutionary unrest.

Maderismo

The movement led by Francisco I. Madero calling for democratic elections and an end to Díaz’s dictatorship.

Porfiriato

The era of Porfirio Díaz’s rule (1876–1911), marked by economic modernisation, foreign investment, and political repression.

Plan of Ayala

Zapata’s radical 1911 manifesto calling for the return of stolen lands and the overthrow of Madero for betraying agrarian promises.

Plan of San Luis Potosí

Issued by Madero in 1910, this declaration denounced Díaz’s fraudulent election and called for armed rebellion on 20 November—now regarded as the Revolution’s start date.

Soldaderas

Women who followed and supported revolutionary armies. Their roles ranged from logistical support to combat, intelligence work, and command.

Villismo

The political and social movement associated with Pancho Villa, focused on labour rights, rural autonomy, and resistance to centralisation under Carranza.

Zapatismo

The agrarian movement led by Emiliano Zapata in Morelos, centred on the slogan “Tierra y Libertad” (Land and Liberty).

MEXICAN REVOLUTION TIMELINE (1876–1940)

Pre-Revolution (1876–1910)

1876: Porfirio Díaz seizes power, beginning the Porfiriato.

1880s–1890s: Expansion of railways, foreign investment, and haciendas; rising inequality and repression.

1908: Díaz tells U.S. journalist James Creelman he will step down—sparking political organising.

1910 (June): Díaz wins a fraudulent election against Francisco Madero.

1910 (October): Madero issues the Plan of San Luis Potosí, calling for armed revolt.

Revolution Ignites (1910–1911)

20 November 1910: Official beginning of the Mexican Revolution.

1911 (May): Rebel victories force Díaz into exile.

1911 (November): Madero becomes president.

Civil War Intensifies (1912–1914)

1912: Pascual Orozco rebels against Madero; federal forces struggle to maintain control.

1913 (February): La Decena TrágicaLa Decena Trágica Full Description:“The Ten Tragic Days.” A bloody military coup that took place in Mexico City in 1913, resulting in the overthrow and assassination of President Francisco Madero. It marked the end of the democratic opening and the return of military dictatorship. La Decena Trágica refers to the ten days of artillery bombardment and street fighting in the capital. Conservative elements of the army, led by General Victoriano Huerta, conspired against the revolutionary government. The event culminated in the betrayal and murder of Madero and his Vice President, plunging the country back into full-scale civil war. Critical Perspective:Critically, this event highlights the role of foreign intervention. The coup was actively supported and encouraged by the US Ambassador, Henry Lane Wilson, who feared Madero’s inability to protect American business interests. It demonstrates how domestic reactionaries and foreign imperialists collaborated to strangle Mexico’s nascent democracy in its cradle.
Read more (“Ten Tragic Days”)—military coup in Mexico City.

1913 (February): General Victoriano Huerta overthrows and murders Madero.

1913–1914: Villa, Zapata, and Carranza unite—temporarily—against Huerta.

Fragmentation and Factional War (1914–1916)

1914 (July): Huerta resigns under revolutionary pressure.

1914 (October–December): The Convention of AguascalientesConvention of Aguascalientes Full Description:A major meeting of revolutionary leaders held in 1914 in an attempt to settle differences between the warring factions (Villa, Zapata, and Carranza). It declared itself sovereign but ultimately failed to unify the revolutionaries, leading to the bloodiest phase of the civil war. The Convention of Aguascalientes was an attempt to transition from military struggle to political governance. It adopted the radical agrarian demands of the Zapatistas but was rejected by the Constitutionalist leader Venustiano Carranza. The split defined the next phase of the war: the “Conventionalists” (Villa and Zapata) versus the “Constitutionalists” (Carranza and Obregón). Critical Perspective:The failure of the Convention illustrates the impossibility of reconciling the different class interests within the revolution. The agrarian peasants (Zapata) and the northern ranchers (Villa) had fundamentally different visions of the state than the middle-class, nationalist lawyers and landlords (Carranza). The revolution was not one movement, but two: a popular social revolution and a bourgeois political revolution, which were destined to collide.
Read more collapses; Villa and Zapata break with Carranza.

1915: Carranza’s general Álvaro Obregón defeats Villa in decisive battles (Celaya, León).

1916: Carranza consolidates power; Villa’s influence declines.

Institutionalising Revolution (1917–1920)

1917: Constitution of 1917 enacted—major reform blueprint.

1919 (April): Emiliano Zapata assassinated by Carranza’s agents.

1920: Obregón leads a revolt; Carranza is killed fleeing Mexico City.

1920 (December): Obregón elected president—beginning era of relative stability.

Aftermath and Long-Term Legacy (1920–1940)

1923: Pancho Villa assassinated in Parral.

1924–1928: Presidency of Plutarco Elías Calles—anticlerical reforms and consolidation of a new state.

1926–1929: Cristero War between Catholic militants and the secular state.

1929: Creation of the PNR (precursor to PRI), stabilising political power for decades.

1934–1940: Presidency of Lázaro Cárdenas—major land reform, nationalisation of oil, revival of Zapatista ideals.