On 30 June 1936, a small, erect man in a black cloak and a white robe walked to the podium of the League of NationsLeague of Nations Full Description:The first worldwide intergovernmental organisation whose principal mission was to maintain world peace. Its spectacular failure to prevent the aggression of the Axis powers provided the negative blueprint for the United Nations, influencing the decision to prioritize enforcement power over pure idealism. The League of Nations was the precursor to the UN, established after the First World War. Founded on the principle of collective security, it relied on moral persuasion and unanimous voting. It ultimately collapsed because it lacked an armed force and, crucially, the United States never joined, rendering it toothless in the face of expansionist empires. Critical Perspective:The shadow of the League looms over the UN. The founders of the UN viewed the League as “too democratic” and ineffective because it treated all nations as relatively equal. Consequently, the UN was designed specifically to correct this “error” by empowering the Great Powers (via the Security Council) to police the world, effectively sacrificing sovereign equality for the sake of stability.
Read more assembly hall in Geneva and waited for the jeering Italian journalists in the press gallery to be removed before he began to speak. Haile Selassie I, Emperor of Ethiopia — King of Kings, Conquering Lion of the Tribe of Judah — had travelled to Geneva to make a personal appeal to the assembled representatives of world civilisation, eight months after Italian forces under Mussolini’s orders had invaded his country, six weeks after Italian troops had entered his capital, and three weeks after Italy had formally annexed the oldest independent state in Africa. He spoke in Amharic, quietly, in a voice that radio carried across Europe and to much of the world. The speech he delivered is one of the most remarkable documents in the history of international relations: a calm, precise, devastating indictment of collective cowardice dressed as neutral procedure. “It is us today,” he told the assembly. “It will be you tomorrow.”

The League did not act. Ethiopia was conquered. Haile Selassie went into exile in Bath, England, where he lived for five years in a rented house while Italian colonial administrators ran his country with methods that included the systematic use of poison gas, the bombing of Red Cross hospitals, and the mass execution of Ethiopian civilians. The episode is one of the most instructive failures in modern history — not because failure in international relations is unusual, but because the failure was so total, so visible, and so consequential, and because those who allowed it happened did so while maintaining the full apparatus of principled procedure that was designed precisely to prevent it.

Ethiopia and the Scramble for AfricaScramble for Africa Full Description The rapid partition of Africa among European powers between approximately 1880 and 1900, in which almost the entire continent was divided into colonies with borders drawn to reflect European diplomatic settlements rather than African political or ethnic realities. Formalised at the Berlin Conference of 1884–85, the Scramble was driven by competition for raw materials, strategic naval routes, markets, and the prestige of empire. By 1914, only Ethiopia and Liberia remained independent. Critical Perspective The Berlin Conference is often cited as the origin of Africa’s “artificial borders,” but this overstates its importance — many borders were drawn in subsequent bilateral agreements and on the ground by surveyors and military officers rather than diplomats in Berlin. The more significant legacy is the speed of the Scramble: unlike India, where British power was consolidated over centuries, Africa was colonised in a generation, with devastating disruption to existing political orders and insufficient time for the administrative and institutional structures of colonial rule to develop.

Ethiopia’s survival as an independent state through the Scramble for Africa was not accidental; it was the product of deliberate diplomacy and military preparation by rulers who understood what European colonialism meant in practice. The Emperor Menelik II, who ruled from 1889 to 1913, had spent decades acquiring modern weapons — largely from France and Russia, who had their own reasons for checking British and Italian ambitions in the region — and building an army capable of deploying them effectively. When Italian forces under General Oreste Baratieri advanced into Ethiopian territory in early 1896, confident of a swift victory over an adversary they had profoundly underestimated, they were walking into an ambush at a scale and organisation they had not anticipated. The Ethiopian force at Adwa numbered over eighty thousand, was well-supplied and fighting on familiar terrain, and was commanded by officers who had prepared the engagement with a thoroughness that the Italian intelligence had failed entirely to detect. The result was not a close-run thing.

The political consequences of Adwa extended far beyond Italy. For colonised and threatened peoples across Africa, Asia, and the African diaspora, the victory was electrifying proof that European armies were not invincible and that organised resistance could succeed. Adwa entered the political imagination of Pan-AfricanismPan-Africanism Full Description:A political and cultural ideology asserting that the peoples of Africa and the diaspora share a common history and destiny. It posits that the continent can only achieve true prosperity and freedom from imperial domination through political and economic unification, rather than as fragmented nation-states. Pan-Africanism was the guiding philosophy of Kwame Nkrumah and the radical independence movements. It argued that the borders drawn by European powers were artificial constructs designed to keep the continent weak and divided. The ideology suggests that “African” is a political identity born of a shared struggle against capitalism and colonialism, necessitating a “United States of Africa” to protect the continent’s resources. Critical Perspective:Critically, this movement recognized that the colonial state was a trap. A single, small African nation could never negotiate on equal footing with Western powers or multinational corporations. Therefore, sovereignty for individual nations was viewed as meaningless without the collective strength of a unified continent. The failure to achieve this unity is often cited as the root cause of the continent’s persistent neocolonial exploitation. Further Reading The Gold Coast Laboratory: Britain’s Unintended Revolution The Constitutional Laboratory: Forging a Path to Self-Rule Kwame Nkrumah, the CPP, and the Mechanics of Mass Mobilization Women of the Revolution: The Overlooked Architects of Freedom A Hub and Haven for a Global Black Nation The Dam of Dreams: The Volta River Project The Coup and the Aftermath: The End of the First Republic Deconstructing Nkrumah’s Intellectual Foundations The Coercive Consensus: Ghana’s Neoliberal Remaking as a founding event — the moment at which African military capacity demonstrated itself against the colonial project with a decisiveness that could not be explained away. This symbolic inheritance shaped what the Italian invasion of 1935 meant to observers far beyond Ethiopia’s borders, and it explains why the international response to that invasion was felt so personally by communities with no direct connection to Ethiopian politics.

The Shadow of Adwa

To understand what the Italian invasion of Ethiopia in 1935 meant from the Italian side, it is necessary to understand what had happened at Adwa in 1896. In the Scramble for Africa that had distributed the continent among the European powers in the final decades of the nineteenth century, Ethiopia — then usually called Abyssinia in the European press — had remained independent, partly through diplomatic skill, partly through the strength of its military tradition, and partly through the geographical difficulty of its highland terrain. Italy, newly unified and late to the imperial project, had established colonial footholds in Eritrea and Somalia but coveted Ethiopia as the territory that would link its East African possessions into a coherent empire.

The First Italo-Ethiopian War of 1895–96 ended in catastrophe for Italy. At the Battle of Adwa on 1 March 1896, an Italian force of approximately seventeen thousand men was decisively defeated by an Ethiopian army under the Emperor Menelik II. Italian casualties — killed, wounded, and captured — numbered around half the force. It was one of the most comprehensive defeats ever inflicted by an African army on a European colonial expedition, and it had effects that echoed through Italian political culture for forty years. Adwa was simultaneously a national humiliation to be avenged and a demonstration that Ethiopians were capable of organised, effective resistance — a demonstration that shaped Italian military planning in 1935 toward an approach that would deny Ethiopia the conditions in which organised resistance was possible.

For Mussolini, who had come to power in Italy in 1922 and whose fascist regime was by the early 1930s in need of the kind of imperial prestige that could consolidate domestic support and project Italian power internationally, Ethiopia represented several things simultaneously: the revenge for Adwa, the establishment of Italian greatness as a colonial power, and the creation of an East African empire large enough to be taken seriously by Britain and France. He had been planning the invasion since at least 1932, conducting detailed military studies and building up forces in Eritrea throughout 1934. The pretext — a skirmish at the Wal Wal oasis on the contested Somali-Ethiopian border in December 1934, in which Ethiopian and Italian troops exchanged fire with casualties on both sides — was deployed with deliberate cynicism. Mussolini had decided to invade regardless of the outcome of any arbitration; Wal Wal was a useful occasion, not a genuine cause.

The Invasion

Italian forces crossed the Eritrean border into Ethiopia on 3 October 1935, without a declaration of war, in the largest colonial expedition Africa had seen. General Pietro Badoglio commanded in the north; General Rodolfo Graziani in the south. The force eventually numbered over four hundred thousand men, supported by air power, artillery, and a supply infrastructure that had been built up over years. Against this, Ethiopia could field a large army in absolute numbers — estimates range from three hundred thousand to five hundred thousand — but one that was poorly equipped by European standards, without meaningful air power, with limited mechanised transport, and without the logistical capacity to sustain a prolonged campaign against a modern military force.

What distinguished the Italian campaign, and what Haile Selassie made central to his Geneva speech, was the systematic use of chemical weapons in violation of the 1925 Geneva Protocol, which Italy had signed. Mustard gas was dropped by aircraft and artillery on Ethiopian troops, on civilian populations, on ambulances, and on Red Cross hospitals whose markings were used by Italian pilots to identify targets rather than spare them. The International Committee of the Red Cross filed formal protests. Eyewitness reports from Ethiopian survivors and the small number of foreign observers in the country documented the use extensively. The Italian government denied it; the League of Nations received the complaints and processed them through committees; nothing happened.

The Ethiopian military resistance was substantial given the disparity in equipment. Ethiopian forces inflicted significant casualties at the Battle of Amba Aradam (February 1936) and in other engagements, and Haile Selassie personally led troops in the field — an unusual act for a head of state, and one that reflected both his genuine commitment and the absence of any alternative command structure capable of coordinating the defence. But the combination of Italian air supremacy, the use of chemical weapons, and the inability of Ethiopia’s logistical system to sustain a dispersed guerrilla resistance meant that organised conventional resistance was broken by the spring of 1936. Addis Ababa fell on 5 May. Haile Selassie had left the country four days earlier, on British advice, to prevent his capture.

The League and Its Failure

The League of Nations had been created after the First World War precisely to prevent this kind of aggression. Its Covenant committed member states to the collective defence of any member subjected to unprovoked attack, through a system of economic sanctions designed to make aggression costly enough to deter or reverse it. The system had theoretical coherence: if all major economies refused to trade with an aggressor, the economic pressure would be irresistible. The problem, always present in the design but now exposed with brutal clarity, was that the system required universal or near-universal participation to work, and that the political will of the major powers — Britain and France above all — was not equal to the test.

The League did act, up to a point. On 7 October 1935, the Council formally declared Italy an aggressor — the first time the League had made such a declaration against a major power. Economic sanctions were imposed in November, covering a range of goods including rubber, tin, and various metals. But the sanctions contained two critical omissions, each of which reflected a political calculation by the powers that controlled the League’s effective operation. Oil — the commodity on which Italy’s mechanised military campaign depended most directly — was explicitly excluded from the sanctions regime, because Britain and France feared that an oil embargo would provoke Mussolini into a direct confrontation that might lead to war. Coal was similarly excluded. The sanctions that were imposed could inconvenience Italy without stopping the campaign.

The Hoare-Laval Pact, concluded in December 1935 between British Foreign Secretary Samuel Hoare and French Prime Minister Pierre Laval, revealed the gap between League rhetoric and great-power politics with particular clarity. The plan, which was leaked to the French press before it could be implemented, proposed to offer Italy approximately two-thirds of Ethiopian territory as the price of a negotiated settlement — in effect, to reward aggression with most of the aggressor’s war aims while the victim was still actively resisting. The public reaction in Britain was so hostile that Hoare was forced to resign; but the underlying calculation that had produced the plan — that European peace required accommodating Mussolini rather than confronting him — remained the operative assumption of British and French policy.

The reasons were not difficult to understand, even if they were not admirable. Britain and France were emerging from the Great DepressionGreat Depression The global economic collapse that began with the US stock market crash of October 1929 and deepened through bank failures, trade collapse, and mass unemployment to produce the worst economic crisis of the twentieth century. By 1932, a quarter of American workers were unemployed; industrial production had fallen by half. The Great Depression began not with a single event but with a series of interconnected collapses. The October 1929 stock market crash wiped out speculative fortunes but would not, alone, have produced a decade-long depression; the depression was deepened by bank failures that wiped out the savings of ordinary Americans, by the Federal Reserve’s contractionary monetary policy that reduced the money supply, by the Smoot-Hawley Tariff of 1930 that triggered retaliatory trade barriers worldwide, and by the gold standard constraints that prevented governments from expanding their monetary supplies in response to the crisis. By 1932–33, a quarter of American workers were unemployed, industrial production had fallen by fifty percent, and the banking system had effectively ceased to function. The international dimension was crucial: Germany’s reparations obligations and war debt structure, financed by American loans, made the German economy uniquely vulnerable to the credit contraction. The Depression contributed directly to Hitler’s electoral rise — the Nazi Party gained over 37% of the vote in July 1932 in conditions of mass unemployment and national humiliation. The policy responses — Roosevelt’s New Deal, Britain’s abandonment of the gold standard, the various autarkic nationalisms of the 1930s — produced partial recovery in some countries while deepening the crisis in others. Full recovery required the Second World War’s military spending to restore full employment. The Great Depression was not a natural disaster but a political-economic failure: decisions made by governments, central banks, and financial institutions that could have been made differently. Keynes’s analysis — that the depression reflected a collapse of effective demand that markets could not self-correct without government intervention — was substantially correct, but politically unacceptable to the orthodoxies of the 1930s. The lasting significance of the Depression is not economic but political: it demonstrated that sustained mass unemployment was politically uncontainable, that democracies unable to provide economic security were vulnerable to authoritarian alternatives, and that the international economic system required political management that pure market mechanisms could not supply. The post-war Bretton Woods system — managed exchange rates, capital controls, the IMF and World Bank — was designed precisely to prevent a recurrence by building the international economic management mechanisms that had been absent in the 1930s., their militaries were unready for a major conflict, their publics were profoundly opposed to war, and Hitler’s Germany was rearming with a speed that made any diversion of attention or resources toward an African crisis seem strategically irresponsible. The logic of appeasementAppeasement Full Description The British and French policy of making concessions to Nazi Germany in the 1930s, associated primarily with Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain. Its most notorious expression was the Munich Agreement of September 1938, which ceded the Sudetenland to Germany without Czech consent. Chamberlain returned to London declaring “peace for our time.” Within six months, Germany had occupied the rest of Czechoslovakia. Appeasement has become a byword for the futile accommodation of aggressive dictators. Critical Perspective The post-war demonisation of appeasement — and of Chamberlain — has been substantially qualified by revisionist historians. Britain in 1938 was not ready for war: rearmament was incomplete, the dominions opposed conflict, public opinion was strongly against another war, and military advisers were pessimistic about British prospects. Appeasement bought a year’s time for rearmament. The deeper failure was not Munich itself but the preceding decade of disarmament and wishful thinking that made the choice between war and capitulation so stark. that would reach its fullest expression at Munich in 1938 was already operative in the Ethiopian crisis of 1935–36. Italy, it was calculated, might yet be a useful counterweight to Germany — Mussolini had after all mobilised troops at the Brenner Pass in 1934 to deter a German annexation of Austria. To push him into Hitler’s arms by enforcing the League Covenant against him was, in this calculation, a worse outcome than allowing him to conquer Ethiopia.

The calculation proved wrong on its own terms. Mussolini was not deterred from aligning with Germany by the League’s partial sanctions; he concluded from the episode that Britain and France were bluffing and that the Axis was the winning side. The Rome-Berlin Axis was formalised in October 1936, five months after the Ethiopian campaign ended. Italy had been driven toward Germany not by the sanctions imposed but by the clear signal they sent: that the democracies would not enforce their own rules at any cost that mattered.

Ethiopia, Race, and the Diaspora

The international response to the Italian invasion was not only a story of great-power failure. Among Black communities in the United States, Britain, the Caribbean, and across Africa, the invasion of Ethiopia produced an outpouring of solidarity that was among the most significant moments in the history of Pan-Africanism. Ethiopia held a unique place in the Black Atlantic imagination: as the oldest independent African state, as the country that had defeated a European army at Adwa, as the African kingdom referenced in the Psalms and in centuries of African-American religious tradition, it functioned as a symbol of African dignity and potential that was unlike any other territory on the continent.

C.L.R. James, the Trinidadian Marxist and pan-Africanist, organised the International African Friends of Ethiopia in London in 1935, agitating for the imposition of effective sanctions and drawing connections between the Italian invasion and the broader structure of European imperialism. George Padmore, the Trinidadian journalist and activist who would become one of the principal theorists of African independence, wrote extensively on the crisis. In Harlem, fundraising campaigns collected medical supplies for the Ethiopian Red Cross, and the boxing career of Joe Louis — particularly his 1935 defeat of the Italian-American Primo Carnera — was invested with a weight of political symbolism that few sporting events have carried before or since. The Ethiopian crisis was not simply a matter of geopolitics; it was a moment when the question of whether African peoples would be protected by the structures of international law was answered, definitively and in public, in the negative.

The Rastafari movement, which had emerged in Jamaica in the early 1930s and which identified Haile Selassie as a messianic figure, experienced the invasion as a spiritual crisis that was ultimately resolved through a theology of exile, persecution, and eventual redemption. The figure of the exiled emperor, stripped of his kingdom by European aggression and waiting in a foreign country for restoration, mapped directly onto Rastafarian understandings of the Black diaspora’s own condition. When Haile Selassie was restored to his throne in 1941, his return was understood within Rastafari as a prophetic fulfilment. The global symbolic weight that the Ethiopian crisis gave to Haile Selassie would shape Rastafarian theology and, through it, the global reach of reggae and the political culture of the Black Atlantic for the rest of the twentieth century.

The Occupation and Its Methods

Italian rule in Ethiopia between 1936 and 1941 was brutal by any standard, and the methods used during the occupation were an extension of those used during the conquest. The Addis Ababa massacre of February 1937 — in which Italian forces and fascist militia killed an estimated seven thousand to thirty thousand Ethiopians over three days in reprisal for an assassination attempt on Marshal Graziani — was the largest single act of mass killing under Italian colonial rule and remains largely absent from standard European histories of the period. The Yekatit 12, as it is known in Ethiopia, is memorialised in Addis Ababa today; in Italy it was barely acknowledged for decades after the war.

Graziani, who served as Viceroy of Italian East Africa and directed the reprisals, was known to Italian troops as “the Butcher of Fezzan” for his earlier methods in Libya, where he had used mass execution and concentration camps to suppress the Senussi resistance in the late 1920s and early 1930s. His appointment to command in Ethiopia reflected a deliberate policy choice: Italy would rule through terror sufficient to prevent the organised resistance from reconstituting itself. The Ethiopian guerrilla resistance — the Arbegnoch, or Patriots — nonetheless continued throughout the occupation, tying down Italian forces and maintaining an armed challenge to colonial rule that the Italians never fully suppressed.

Liberation came from outside. When Italy entered the Second World War on the German side in June 1940, Britain moved against Italian East Africa. The East African Campaign of 1940–41, in which British, South African, Indian, and Free French forces, fighting alongside Ethiopian Patriot irregulars, defeated the Italian army across the region, ended with the Italian surrender and the restoration of Haile Selassie to his throne in May 1941, five years after he had delivered his Geneva speech. The League of Nations, whose failure had made the occupation possible, was dissolved in 1946, having been superseded by the United Nations — a body created partly in response to the lessons of the 1930s, though whether those lessons were correctly identified has been disputed ever since.

Italy and Africa: A Colonial Record Unconfronted

The broader context of Italian colonialism in Africa, which preceded and prepared the ground for the Ethiopian invasion, is worth holding in view. Italy had acquired Libya from the Ottoman EmpireOttoman Empire ottoman-empire The Islamic empire centred on Istanbul that ruled Anatolia, the Arab Middle East, North Africa, and southeastern Europe from the fourteenth century to its dissolution after the First World War. Its collapse created the modern states of the Middle East, Turkey, and the Balkans in ways that continue to shape regional politics. At its peak in the sixteenth century, the Ottoman Empire encompassed an enormous territory from Hungary to Yemen, from Algeria to the borders of Persia. It was a multi-ethnic, multi-religious state governed through the millet system, which granted non-Muslim communities (Christians, Jews) significant autonomy in their internal affairs in exchange for taxes and political loyalty. The nineteenth century brought simultaneous challenges: nationalist movements among the Balkan populations — Serbs, Greeks, Bulgarians, Romanians — used the language of national self-determination to carve independent states from Ottoman territory, with Russian and Western support; the empire lost more than a third of its European territory in the 1877–78 war with Russia. Attempts at modernisation and reform — the Tanzimat reforms, the Young Turk Revolution of 1908 — failed to arrest the decline and produced new tensions between Turkish nationalist modernisers and the empire’s Arab, Armenian, and Kurdish populations. The First World War was catastrophic: the empire entered on the German side, suffered the Armenian Genocide (1915–23), lost the Arab provinces to British-led forces, and was dissolved by the Treaty of Sèvres (1920) — replaced by the Turkish Republic under Ataturk, whose territorial integrity was established by the Treaty of Lausanne (1923). The Ottoman Empire’s collapse created the modern Middle East in ways that are still unfolding. The borders drawn by the Sykes-Picot Agreement and the subsequent mandates reflected French and British strategic priorities rather than the population distributions, administrative traditions, or political aspirations of the peoples concerned. The result was a set of states whose internal social compositions were incompatible with the nation-state model imposed on them: Iraq with its Sunni-Shia-Kurdish divisions, Lebanon with its confessional arithmetic, Syria with its minority-dominated military, Israel-Palestine with its overlapping claims. These incompatibilities were not caused by the Ottoman Empire — which governed diverse populations through systems of autonomous administration — but by the particular form of its destruction and replacement. The ongoing instability of the region reflects, in significant part, the unresolved consequences of those decisions made in London and Paris between 1916 and 1920. in 1911–12, and the subsequent suppression of Libyan resistance under Graziani and others in the 1920s and 1930s involved methods — mass deportations, concentration camps, summary executions, the use of poison gas — that were as extreme as anything in the Ethiopian campaign and that were equally suppressed in the postwar Italian historical consciousness. The Senussi leader Omar Mukhtar, who led the Libyan resistance until his capture and public hanging in 1931, became a symbol of anti-colonial resistance across the Arab and African worlds — celebrated in Libya today as a national hero, his face on the currency — while in Italy he remained largely unknown until an Italian-Libyan co-production dramatising his story appeared in 1981, starring Anthony Quinn. The pattern of Italian colonial atrocity followed by Italian colonial amnesia was established in Libya before it was repeated in Ethiopia.

The Meaning of the Failure

The Italo-Ethiopian War is typically discussed in histories of the 1930s as a chapter in the story of appeasement — a step on the road from the Rhineland to Austria to Czechoslovakia to Poland, a data point in the argument that earlier firmness might have deterred Hitler. This is not wrong, but it is partial. The Ethiopian crisis was also, and centrally, a story about race and the limits of international law as those limits were defined by the European powers who controlled its institutions. The League of Nations had been designed by, operated by, and served the interests of those powers; when the interests of an African state conflicted with the convenience of European great-power management, the African state was sacrificed without serious internal debate.

Haile Selassie’s Geneva speech was remarkable precisely because it named this dynamic explicitly. He did not appeal to European sentimentality or to great-power self-interest alone; he argued from principle, from the text of the Covenant, from the specific obligations that member states had undertaken. He demonstrated, in careful detail, that the League was capable of acting but had chosen not to act — that the failure was political, not procedural. The assembled diplomats received his argument, applauded it politely, and continued not to act. The speech is remembered; the decision it failed to change is also remembered, by historians of decolonisation and international law, as a moment that shaped the scepticism with which newly independent African states regarded the international order in the 1950s and 1960s.

Italy’s postwar reckoning with its colonial history has been substantially less thorough than its reckoning with fascism more generally. The war crimes committed in Ethiopia — the use of chemical weapons, the Addis Ababa massacre, the targeting of Red Cross facilities — were acknowledged to a limited degree at the postwar trials, but no Italian official was ever convicted specifically for Ethiopian war crimes in proceedings that had genuine domestic legitimacy. Graziani was tried in Italy in 1948, convicted of collaborationCollaboration Full Description:The cooperation of local governments, police forces, and citizens in German-occupied countries with the Nazi regime. The Holocaust was a continental crime, reliant on French police, Dutch civil servants, and Ukrainian militias to identify and deport victims. Collaboration challenges the narrative that the Holocaust was solely a German crime. across Europe, local administrations assisted the Nazis for various reasons: ideological agreement (antisemitism), political opportunism, or bureaucratic obedience. In many cases, local police rounded up Jews before German forces even arrived. Critical Perspective:This term reveals the fragility of social solidarity. When their Jewish neighbors were targeted, many European societies chose to protect their own national sovereignty or administrative autonomy by sacrificing the minority. It complicates the post-war myths of “national resistance” that many European countries adopted to hide their complicity.
Read more with the Nazi occupiers of Italy during the war, and sentenced to nineteen years, of which he served two. His role in Ethiopia and Libya was not part of the indictment. He died in 1955 and was given a state funeral in his home village, where a memorial to him still stands and has been the subject of periodic controversy. The failure of postwar Italy to confront its colonial record in East Africa and North Africa is one of the more significant gaps in European historical memory, and it has consequences — for Italy’s contemporary relationship with the countries it colonised, and for the broader European understanding of what the fascist era actually consisted of.

Ethiopia emerged from the Italian occupation with its sovereignty restored but its economy damaged and its political structures strained by the experience of foreign rule and guerrilla resistance. Haile Selassie returned to govern for another three decades, his international reputation transformed by the events of 1935–41 from a regional monarch into a global symbol. He was one of the founders of the Organisation of African Unity in 1963, and Addis Ababa became the OAU’s permanent headquarters — a recognition of Ethiopia’s status as the continent’s oldest independent state and of the symbolic weight it carried in the history of African resistance to colonialism. His own rule grew increasingly authoritarian and was ended by a military coup in 1974. But the speech he had given in Geneva remained what it had always been: the clearest possible statement of what it looked like when the world’s institutions failed to do what they existed to do, delivered by the person most qualified to know.