Introduction The Self-Strengthening Movement (1861–1895) was the Qing dynasty’s first major effort to modernize China and arrest its decline. In the wake of civil war and foreign invasions, a group of reform-minded officials sought to adopt Western military technology, industrial techniques, and educational practices in order to strengthen the nation—while still preserving traditional Confucian values. … Continue reading Self-Strengthening or Self-Deception? China’s First Modernization Efforts (1861–1895)